The Maiden of Yue

This month, I would like to honour International Women’s Day (the eighth of March) by presenting an article that focuses on a swordswoman considered the epitome of skill in the first great sword culture of China’s long history ₍₁₎.  越女 (Yuènǚ) [The Maiden of Yuè] is a semi-historical person from the around the end of the Spring-Autumn period (770-476 BCE), who is featured in three consecutive sections of the: 《吳越春秋》 (Wú Yuè Chūnqiū) [“Spring & Autumn Annals of the Wú & Yuè”] ₍₂₎, written by Hàn historian 趙曄 (Zhào Yè).

Part One – An Invitation from the King

First let’s set the scene with a summary of the first part of Yuènǚ’s story from the aforementioned “Wú Yuè Chūnqiū”:

The story opens with us listening in on a discussion between 越王勾踐 (Yuè Wáng Gōujiàn) [Gōujiàn, King of Yuè] and his prime minister 范蠡 (Fàn Lǐ), where they are talking about a military problem the kingdom is having.  Fàn Lǐ suggests that they might resolve the problem by hiring better martial arts instructors to train their troops.  Then he goes on to tell the king that he has heard the people of the kingdom speak highly [about the sword skills] of a young woman from Yuè’s Southern Forest, and recommends the King invite her to the palace to find out whether the rumours are true.

Goujian – The Servant King

Now for a quick, story side step for some background information.

Wú & Yuè were both considered Southern States during China’s Warring states period [475 – 221 BCE], which is when our story is set.  They were rival states and by the time of Yuènǚ’s story, military conflicts had already taken place.  At the 槜李之戰 (Zuìlǐ zhī Zhàn) [Battle of Zuìlǐ] in 496 BCE, Wú forces under the command of 闔閭 (Hélǘ), King of Wú [who reigned 514 – 496 BCE] attacked the state of Yuè.  You might remember Hélǘ as the king who famously employed 孫子 (Sūnzǐ), the much-celebrated commander and military strategist who wrote “The Art of War”.

During the battle, Hélǘ was injured and later died from his wounds, but before he died he said to 夫差 (Fūchāi) (his son who would succeed him): 必毋忘越 [“[You] must never forget Yuè!”].  His words must have hit the right target as a year or so later, Fūchāi defeated the state of Yuè and annexed it into the Kingdom of Wú.

After Yuè’s defeat, Fūchāi made Gōujiàn work as his servant for three years before allowing him to return home.  During these years of servitude, Gōujiàn laid the groundwork for his plan to retake his kingdom from the Wú.  The Chinese might describe this as Gōujiàn having to ‘吃苦’ (Chīkǔ) [Eat Bitter]; a term familiar to many Chinese style martial artists, which refers to enduring hardship.  They also have a more specific saying about this, which is based on this time in Gōujiàn’s life: 臥薪嚐膽 (Wò xīn cháng dǎn) [lit. “Lying on firewood, tasting bile”].  This figuratively means: ‘to suffer patiently but with a firm resolve on revenge’.

Gōujiàn had gone from being a king in his own kingdom, to a servant during its occupation, and then returning to power again as a triumphant rebel king.  This high-low-high movement suggests a king with the capacity to understand his people a bit better than most.  We hear of him listening to Fàn Lǐ telling him the whispers of the people, and then he takes action based on that information, suggesting that he appreciates the opinions of those beneath his rank.

In the third part of the story (*spoilers*) he listens at length to the Maiden of Yuè, who is not just one of the common people but also a woman, and at this point in history she would be unlikely to have her opinions listened to by a common man, let alone valued by a king (but more on that later).  This action serves to underscore Gōujiàn’s appreciation of what those beneath his rank bring to his kingdom, and he leaves a legacy (via the annals) of being a true man of the people.

Part Two – A Bamboo Challenge

Here’s a summary of the second section of Yuènǚ’s tale from the “Wú Yuè Chūnqiū”:

Yuènǚ accepts the king’s invitation and begins the journey North to meet him.  Along the way she is stopped by an old man who calls himself 袁公 (Yuán Gōng) [Lord Yuán].  The old man challenges the maiden on her reputed sword skills, and after a modest rebuttal, she agrees to a friendly contest and to not hold anything back.  Whereupon the old man rips a bamboo stick out of the ground in order to strike her with it; but the stick is rotten in the middle, and the top half falls to the floor.  The maiden snatches up the fallen piece, seconds before the old man thrusts his half at her.  She parries his stick, raising it up, and then breaking it, by smacking it three times with hers.  At this point Lord Yuán magically transforms himself into a white ape, leaps up into the trees, and flees.

The White Ape – Sexual Predator

Now for some background on this second section:

Although Yuènǚ met an old man who called himself 袁公 (Yuán Gōng) [Lord Yuán], this section ends with him transforming into a magical white ape.  The Chinese word for Ape: 猿 (Yuán) is a homophone for the surname Yuán, and this subtle clue would be something a Chinese reader would enjoy picking up on.  It is also worth noting that despite the word ‘Chūnqiū’ (found in the title “Wú Yuè Chūnqiū”) meaning ‘Annals / Chronicles’, this is not the only time something magical occurs in them.  These same Chinese readers would also be familiar with the idea of a white / magical ape being an abductor and rapist of human women, as this is an idea that has been around for a very long time in China.  Check out this brief excerpt on the subject from the Hàn dynasty’s “Forest of Changes” a.k.a. 《焦氏易林》 (Jiāoshì Yìlín) [The Jiāo Clan’s Forest of Changes] ₍₄₎:

「南山大玃，盗我媚妾。

A great Jué [from the] Southern mountains stole my comely concubine.

怯不敢逐，退而独宿。」

[I am a] coward [who] dares not pursue (them),

[Instead, I shall] withdraw [from the world], and [grow] old, alone.

The 玃 (Jué) or 玃猿 (Juéyuán) are a species of legendary apes from 四川 (Sìchuān) and 雲南 (Yúnnán) provinces, which are said to abduct and sexually violate human women.  These predatory Jué turn up in a number of Jìn dynasty (266-420 CE) texts like the 《抱樸子》 (Bàopǔzǐ) [“(Writings of the) Master (of) Embracing Simplicity”], the 《博物志》 (Bówùzhì) [lit. “Extensive Creature Annals”], and 《搜神記》 (Sōushén Jì) [“In Search of the Supernatural”] ₍₅₎.

The White Ape turns up in many roles throughout Chinese literature & folk tales, sometimes he can be benevolent but he can also play the rapist-abductor role as is suggested in this section of the maiden’s tale.  The Táng dynasty (618 – 907 CE) has a story called 《補江總白猿傳》 (Bǔ Jiāng Zǒng Báiyuán Zhuàn) [“The Biography of the White Ape”], which tells of a magical white ape who was said to have abducted and raped the wife of General 歐陽紇 (Ōuyáng Hé).  Although written as a literary lampooning of the simianesque faced imperial calligrapher 歐陽詢 (Ōuyáng Xún) (son to General Ōuyáng), it also tells us that even several hundred years after the time the “Wú Yuè Chūnqiū” was written, the abductor-rapist role was still being applied to the White Ape.

Knowing that the White Ape has an abductor-rapist reputation layers a dark twist to the character of Lord Yuán, and his challenge to the Maiden of Yuè.  The White Ape’s defeat at the hands of the Maiden is significant, as the typical version of these tales tells of the villainous White Ape successfully defeating the hero and sometimes multiple additional soldiers along with him.  Not only does this establish the maiden’s reputation with the sword as deserved, but it raises her skills above those of the male heroes from previous White Ape tales (that had lost to him).  Let me also draw your attention to the fact that none of the men that came with the King’s envoy were mentioned in this section (at all).  You could be forgiven for assuming they were not there.  I read this as a way of telling us that the action happened exceedingly fast.  From the point where the old man calls out the maiden, to her despatching the transformed terror to the trees, could have all been over in a flash.

Part Three – The Maiden’s Sword Exposition

The final part of the story begins with the King asking the maiden where she acquired her method of sword usage.  The maiden responds, that because she lives so deep in the forest, she has not been able to regularly visit other areas of the kingdom where she could receive training, and therefore she has ‘no method’.  She goes on to say that despite this, she practiced endlessly without worrying whether she had any training or not.

The king then asked “So, what is your method now then?”  To which she replied:

“[When you hear it] you may consider my method trivial and simple, but it is extremely serene and deep.”

[Note to reader: I’m going to switch from summary to translation here, so that you can read the full exposition for yourself. What follows is considered “the oldest surviving exposition on fencing, or any type of hand combat, in Chinese ₍₇₎.”]

道有門戶，亦有陰陽。開門閉戶，陰衰陽興。

[My] method (lit. Way) is a door [but it] is also Yīn & Yáng. A door opens, a door closes; [when] Yīn wanes, Yáng rises.

凡手戰之道，內實精神，外示安儀。

The method of every fighter [should contain…] a true spirit within, [so they] display a calm appearance without.

見之似好婦，奪之似懼虎。

[My] appearance [is] like [that of] a proper woman (i.e. composed), [but when] tussling with [an opponent], [it is] like a fearsome tiger.

布形候，氣與神俱往。

[I] declare [my] shape [and] wait, breath and spirit going together.

杳之若日，偏如滕兔。

Disappearing like [a shadow from] the sun, [then standing] contrary like a Téng [county] rabbit.

追形逐影;   光若彿彷。

Chasing [my opponent’s] form, pursuing (like a) shadow; only appearing as if (his) resemblance.

呼吸往來，不及法禁。

Breathing back and forth, not extending endurance methods.

縱橫逆順，直復不聞。

Criss-crossing backwards to follow (maintaining a close distance), a straight return (retreat) [is] not famous (for a reason).

斯道者，一人當百，百人當萬。

In this way, one person is the equal of a hundred, [and] a hundred people, the equal of ten thousand.

[The exposition ends here and we return to dialogue]

王欲試之，其驗即見。」

[If] the king wishes to test it, [I will] meet his challenge right now.

越王大悅，即加女號，號曰「越女」。

The king of Yuè was very pleased, [and] immediately elevated [the maiden’s status] by declaring [her]: “The Daughter of Yuè” ₍₈₎.

乃命五校之隊長。 高才習之，以教軍士。

Therefore, [you shall] command five captains [from my] military schools. [And they shall] study your outstanding skills, in order to teach their troops.

當此之時皆稱越女之劍。

Manage them until all are good enough [to say they use] the sword [method] of the Maiden of Yuè.

The Mysterious Feminine vs Feminism

The maiden’s sword exposition makes quite a few Daoist philosophical references so, I’d like to start my analysis of the third and final part by drawing your attention to those.  We’ll also take a look at the feminine, female and feminist aspects of the story.

As soon as the maiden mentions her sword method having ‘no method’ I think the author was trying to let the reader know there was a connection to the key Daoist concept of 無為 (Wúwéi).  The maiden actually uses the words 無道 (wú dào) [lit. no way] to describe her ‘no method’ but Wúwéi is about taking action that is ‘no action’ (wú wéi).  This might sound confusing if you don’t read much on the subject but a better definition for Wúwéi might be: taking no action that is not in tune with the Dào.  One of the many times the Dàodéjīng speaks of Wúwéi, it describes it as a key ingredient to superior 德 (Dé) [virtue-power] (another key Daoist concept that is also difficult to reduce down to a simple definition) and adds a caveat that Wúwéi (acting in tune with the Dào) cannot be driven by action born of personal motive as your actions should be done with a degree of honest reaction, and this is easier to achieve when acting spontaneously.

「上德無為，而無以為」

“Superior virtue [comes from] Wúwéi, but [this comes from] acting without thinking (/ ulterior motive).”

Dàodéjīng, Chapter Thirty-Eight

The Maiden’s method of no method therefore sounds a lot like she is taking action in tune with the Dào of the situation.  We see an illustration of this when, in the middle section of the story, the Maiden responds instinctively by snatching up the bamboo stick and despatching the White Ape.

The Daoist use of Yīn-Yáng theory can lead to things being divided into male or female categories quite a bit, with Yīn being considered the female.  At its base this is quite a simple concept, but -like any abstract concept- it can get quite complicated the further you extrapolate from it.  Simplistically, the idea is differentiating via sex, with one sex having genitals that can penetrate, and the other that can receive penetration.  We can look at this abstractly as the male-female distinction representing give and take, in regards to power.

The Dàodéjīng is well-known for celebrating the power of the feminine.  As the Dào is considered the originator of everything, it is described as 「萬物之母」 (Wànwù zhī Mǔ) [Mother of all things] (Dàodéjīng, ch. 1), and 「天下母」 (Tiānxià Mǔ) [Mother of [all] under the Heavens] (Dàodéjīng, ch. 25 & 52).  Yet, although the Daoism of the Dàodéjīng values and promotes ‘the feminine’ from a philosophical point of view, that doesn’t necessarily mean that the behaviour of ‘Daoists’ is in line with modern feminism.  Daoist religious groups have historically shown no noticeable support of women’s rights, or in promoting better living conditions for women in the populace of China (or the world).

“However, femininity as the Daodejing conceives it was situated in a particular cultural and historical context, so that the text was not intended to change women’s social and political position in China. It does not promote the kind of gender equality that Western feminists fight for.”

Prof. Robin R. Wang ₍₉₎

If you are in any doubt as to whether ancient China was a patriarchal society around the time the Dàodéjīng was written [considered to be around 400 BCE] you need only look to the gender of their leaders.  This was a time of Kings, and women were not in positions of power around those kings either.  There is room for argument for matriarchal communities in China being around before historical records ₍₁₀₎, but by the time the Chinese were writing records, men were clearly in power.

Although Daoist culture throughout Chinese history is not feminist per se, when the Dàodéjīng arrived on the scene, its focus on the philosophical feminine did provide a counterpoint to the androcentric Confucian approach which was dominant at that time.

“In the Confucian Analects, gender difference is coded within norms of social appropriateness, biased against women. The female person is recognized only in her roles as wife, and/or as mother. In her role as wife, the status of the woman is inferior to that of her husband. From the moral perspective, the Confucians made little allowance for the development of character or individual achievement in women. Values appropriate to womanhood were explained solely in terms of the woman’s relationships and of her place within the family.”

Prof. Karyn Lynne Lai ₍₁₁₎

In the Maiden of Yuè’s exposition above, she speaks of using the concept of Yīn-Yáng, of being calm (applying the concept 靜 (Jìng) [Stillness]), and yielding position whilst maintaining distance with her opponent.  Prof. Robin R. Wang talks about how the Dàodéjīng repeatedly promotes feminine characteristics, such as stillness and yielding, in her chapter on feminist analysis of ideas found in the Dàodéjīng:

“Other traditionally feminine characteristics such as being “empty,” “returning,” “low,” “soft,” and “yielding” are attributes of Dao.”

Prof. Robin R. Wang ₍₉₎

I think there is a good argument for the connection between the philosophy of the Dàodéjīng and that found in the story and sword exposition of the Maiden of Yuè.  The Dàodéjīng (in ch. 6) speaks of the 「玄牝」 (Xuán Pìn) [Mysterious Female], whereas the Maiden of Yuè (in the “Wú Yuè Chūnqiū”) never actually gets a name.  When the maiden speaks on the advantages of viewing power dynamics within a fight in terms of Yīn-Yáng, she also speaks of gates opening and closing.  The Dàodéjīng also speaks of gates and the female:

「玄牝之門，是謂天地根。」
“The gates of the mysterious female, are the foundation of Heaven (Yáng) & Earth (Yīn).”

Dàodéjīng, Chapter Six

Where the Maiden speaks of calm: “The method of every fighter [should contain] a true spirit within, [so they] display a calm appearance without.  [My] appearance [is] like [that of] a proper woman (i.e. composed), [but when] tussling with [an opponent], [it is] like a fearsome tiger.” The Dàodéjīng says:

「牝常以靜勝牡。」

“The female always uses calm (Jìng) to defeat the male.”

Dàodéjīng, Chapter Sixty-One

Although the Maiden’s story is set pre-Dàodéjīng in the reign of Gōujiàn (496 – 465 BCE), the first record we have of her (the “Wú Yuè Chūnqiū”) was written in the 東漢 (Dōnghàn) [Eastern Hàn (Dynasty)] (23 – 220 CE).  This gave the Dàodéjīng four to six hundred years of influence on the male-led society before we hear the tale of a mysterious female character who applies Daoist philosophy to sword fighting.

On a purely feminist note: Why does the king listen to the maiden?  Historically, the men of ancient China have not valued the opinions of their female counterparts.  Consider this common chéngyǔ (saying): 「婦孺皆知」 (Fùrújiēzhī) [“Even women and children know.”]  Figuratively this means “everyone knows”, but the literal translation reminds us of how little information the women of this period would have had access to.  So, if the women were kept as ignorant (about everything) as children, why would this king suppose a young woman would have anything of value to offer?  Another saying; 「女子無才便是德」 (Nǚzǐ wú cái biàn shì dé) [“A woman’s virtue is to have no talent.”] informs us that this was a culture that considered ‘women without talent’ as virtuous.  So, why does the king clearly value the maiden’s?  My guess is that the prime minister’s recommendation based on the common word of the people got the ball rolling, then his envoy would have informed him about the successful and stylish defeat of an attacker who turned out to be magical.  If we add into the mix the fact that this was a sword culture, then we find we have a leader that values those skilled with swords more than he does the sexism of the times.  And if that wasn’t enough, it turns out this young woman can speak with deep insight and authority on the nature of conflict resolution.  How could the king not laugh nervously, when she calls him out (“[If] the king wishes to test it, [I will] meet his challenge right now”) to see if he wants further proof at the end of her sword?!

Although the Maiden shows no obvious signs of being ‘feminine’, I feel she represents the abstract feminine (as found in Daoist philosophy) in the approach to fencing she speaks of in her exposition.  She never comments on her own femaleness other than to say she has the calm and composure of a “proper woman”, and this is only mentioned to illustrate how she uses this calm to her advantage in combat.

Is the Maiden of Yuè a feminist character then?  I would say she is not, not in the traditional sense of a woman fighting for sexual equality or for the improvement of the treatment of women.  However, in the sense of her being an empowered female character, I would say she is.  In section two of the story we saw her despatching an icon of misogyny in the form of the abductor / rapist ape, and later we saw her speak to the king in a way that does not demonstrate the usual deference to his rank.  Her sword skills elevate her to a peer position with the men because she possesses skills the king needs, and the king and his men then measure her based on this, rather than on her femininity.  The men see her as a warrior first before they see anything female about her, and this came about through her boldness and her ability to back up her words with deadly skills.

Legacy

In 1965 a beautifully designed tin-bronze sword (see picture below) with an amazing resistance to tarnish, was discovered in a 楚 (Chǔ) royal tomb in 湖北 (Húběi province).  You can see it for yourself should you visit China’s 湖北省博物馆 (Húběi Provincial Museum) ₍₁₂₎.  It bears the inscription: 越王勾踐自作用劍 (Yuè Wáng Gōujiàn zì zuòyòng jiàn) [“The King of Yuè, Gōujiàn himself, made [and] used [this] sword”].  The ‘Sword of Gōujiàn’ was one of many Yuè artefacts found in that dig, the presence of which, shows how much the Chǔ (who annexed the state of Yuè) greatly admired Yuè swords and sword culture. When the later Hàn dynasty came to admire the Chǔ, the fame of the Maiden of Yuè spread, and the influence of her sword exposition was assured.

In 1970, the world famous 武俠 (Wǔxiá) [Martial Heroes (genre)] author: 金庸 (Jīn Yōng) (real name: 查良鏞 [Leung-yung ‘Louis’, Cha]), published a short story called 《越女劍》 (Yuènǚ Jiàn) [“Sword of the Yue Maiden”], which was serialised in the evening supplement of a Hong Kong newspaper called 明報 (Ming Pao – N.B. their romanisation) ₍₁₃₎.  Sixteen years later, Hong Kong’s ATV network ran a TV series called 《越女劍》 [English title: “The Supersword Lady” (Chinese title is the same as the Jīn Yōng version)] also based on the Jīn Yōng version of the story.

Throughout the last two millennia there has been some debate as to whether the Maiden of Yuè was a real person or not.  For me, I think she is most likely fictional.  The part of the “Wú Yuè Chūnqiū” in which Yuènǚ appears, is found in a section entitled: 《勾踐十三年》 [the twenty-third year of (the reign of) Gōujiàn], so this section of the annals is most likely centred on King Gōujiàn.  Were we to view the maiden as not having existed, we could re-read her sword-fighting exposition (and this could be tenuous) as a literary device to indirectly talk about Gōujiàn’s strategic skills.

At this point in Chinese history it would also be unusual to have a central, unnamed heroine.  It would make more sense, to read her as a literary device to illustrate a Daoist emphasis on female / Yīn qualities, and how they play with the balance between Yīn and Yáng as described in the maiden’s sword exposition.

Feminism and philosophical interpretations of the story aside, I feel the story remains flexible enough to be read in a number of other ways too.  The three sections of the story follow the hero’s journey, with part one being the ‘call to adventure’, then we have the ‘threshold guardian’ section of the bamboo battle, which also serves as the transformation section as her reputation / skills are tested.  Then we end with the final section of the hero’s reward, in this case being one of reputation with the title “Daughter of Yuè” and being hired as a (presumably well paid) chief instructor to the military.  This interpretative flexibility is part of the reason the tale has persisted, and with its enduring appeal it has also had the side effect of giving the Chinese culture a much admired ‘historical’ heroine.  I think it would be reasonable to question whether we would have had the legend of 花木蘭 (Huā Mùlán) [Mulan (now the main character of two Disney films)] without the Maiden of Yuè.  As a character, the Maiden of Yuè has existed for around two millennia and is still present in the Chinese cultural psyche – an empowered female figure, continuing to inspire future generations.

Notes

All translations from the Chinese in this article are done by me, and therefore any mistakes are mine, and mine alone.

1. “Historians and archaeologists agree that China’s first great sword culture arose in the Wu and Yue states of what was then the southernmost reaches of the Chinese cultural sphere during the Warring States period.” – Ben Judkins, “Kung Fu Tea”

You can read the full article from which this quote is taken here.

2. The specific sections of the 《吳越春秋》 (Wú Yuè Chūnqiū) that you can find this in, are:

Sections 21, 22, and 23 of the: 勾踐十三年 [23^rd Year of Gōujiàn], in the 《勾踐陰謀外傳》 [Unofficial Biography of the Gōujiàn Conspiracy].  ‘Unofficial Biography’ simply means it is not the ‘official dynastic biography’.

You can find the original Chinese version of the “Goujian Conspiracy” (free online) here.

Or you can check out the full, original Chinese text (free online) here.

3. This illustration is taken from the original Jīn Yōng version of the story, the illustrators are: 姜雲行 (Jiāng Yúnxíng) and 王司馬 (Wáng Sīmǎ).  Note: the frightened figure in the foreground is Fàn Lǐ acting as the King’s envoy, which is not stated in the “Wú Yuè Chūnqiū” version of the story.

4. 《焦氏易林》 (Jiāoshì Yìlín) [The Jiāo Clan’s Forest of Changes] was written during the Hàn dynasty by 焦贛 (Jiāo Gàn), c. 9-23 CE.  This excerpt comes specifically from the second chapter, titled: 《坤之》.  You can find the original second chapter in Chinese here.

And the complete text in Chinese here.

5. The 《抱樸子》 (Bàopǔzǐ) [(Writings of the) Master (of) Embracing Simplicity] is a collection of Daoist & Confucian essays from 283–343 CE (in the 晉 (Jìn) dynasty), by葛洪 (Gě Hóng) on the subjects of alchemy, immortality, legalism, society etc.  For more information see here.

The 《博物志》 (Bówùzhì) was written by 張華 (Zhāng Huà) c. 290 CE, (more information here),

and the 《搜神記》 (Sōushén Jì) was written by 干寶 (Gān Bǎo) c. 350 CE, (more information here).

You can also read this for more details: “Earliest Pictorial Representations of Ape Tales” by Wu Hung (Harvard University), 1987.

6. Picture from press release material of the 1933, RKO Radio Pictures Studios production of “King Kong”.

7. This is another quote from the same “Kung Fu Tea” article by Ben Judkins (see Note #1).

8. I’ve used ‘Maiden of Yuè’ (the common translation of Yuènǚ) throughout this article, except here, where I felt ‘Daughter of the Kingdom’ worked better for a title the king bestows upon her.  女 (Nǚ) can mean female, woman and daughter.

9. “Dao Becomes Female” by Prof. Robin R. Wang, is chapter three of: “The Routledge Companion to Feminist Philosophy”, Routledge (2017).

10. See: “A Galaxy of Immortal Women – The Yin Side of Chinese Civilization” by Brian Griffith, Exterminating Angel Press (2012).

Also: “El matriarcado en China : madres, diosas, reinas y chamanes” by Pedro Ceinos Arcones (2011).

Here’s an archived New York Times article on the subject too.

11. “The Daodejing: Resources for Contemporary Feminist Thinking” by Prof. Karyn Lynne Lai is found in “The Journal of Chinese Philosophy” 2000. 27:2, pp. 131-153. E-ISSN: 1540-6253; Print ISSN: 0301-8121.

12. You can visit the more info on the Sword of Goujian at the Húběi museum’s site here.

13. You can read a (free, online) English translation of Jīn Yōng’s “Sword of the Yue Maiden” here.